History
The study of history reveals that major portion of
the southern India (Dakshina Padham) was extended
by Andhra region. Several dynasties ruled over this
part of the country.
Historically the earliest mention of the Andhras
appeared in the Aitareya Brahmana (B.C.800). It was
called Dakshina Padh during those days. Historians
felt that Andhras, Pulindas, Sabaras, and many other
sects lived in Dakshina Padh. But it is only in the
Mauryan age that one gets historical evidence of the
Andhras as a political power in the southeastern Deccan.
Megasthenese, who visited the Court of Chandragupta
Maurya (B.C.322--297), mentioned that Andhra country
had 30 fortified towns and an army of 1,00,000 infantry,
2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. Buddhist books
reveal that Andhras established their kingdoms on
the Godavari belt at that time. Asoka referred in
his 13th rock edict that Andhras were his subordinates.
ANCIENT PERIOD:
Satavahanas:
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history
of the Andhras, as a continuous account of political
and cultural events, commences with the rise of the
Satavahanas as a political power. According to Matsya
Purana there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They
ruled over the Andhradesa including Deccan for about
400 years from the 2nd century B.C. to beyond the
2nd century A.D. Satavahanas were also called Salivahanas
and Satakarnis. In the 3rd century B.C., Simukha,
the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, unified the
various Andhra principalities into one kingdom and
became its ruler (271 B.C. -- 248 B.C.). Dharanikota
near Amaravati in Guntur district was the first capital
of Simukha, but later he shifted his capital to Pratishtana
(Paithan in Aurangabad district).
Satakarni II, the sixth ruler of the dynasty (184
B.C.) was an able ruler who extended his kingdom to
the west by conquering Malwa. According to inscriptional
evidence, he extended the boundaries of his realm
far into central India across the Vindhyas, perhaps
up to the river Ganges. He ruled for a long period
of 56 years. The long reign of Satakarni II was followed
successively by eight rulers of whom none can be credited
with any notable achievement. It was the accession
of Pulumavi I that brought renewed strength and glory
to their kingdom. He struck down the last of the Kanva
rulers, Susarman, in 28 B.C. and occupied Magadha.
The Satavahanas thus assumed an all-India significance
as imperial rulers in succession to the Nandas, Mauryas,
Sungas and Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear
to have been driven, by the Sakas, out of Maharashtra
back to their home land in Andhra. The only silver
lining in that murky atmosphere was the excellent
literary work, Gathasaptasati, of Hala, the 17th Satavahana
king.
It was during the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni,
the 23rd ruler of this dynasty, who ascended the throne
in A.D.62, their kingdom made a sharp recovery of
the lost territories from the western Kshatrapas.
A Nasik record describes him as the restorer of the
glory of the Satavahanas. His kingdom included the
territories of Asika, Assaka, Mulaka, Saurashtra,
Kukura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti,
and the mountainous regions of Vindhya, Achavata,
Pariyatra, Sahya, Kanhagiri, Siritana, Malaya, Mahendra,
Sata and Chakora, and extended as far as seas on either
side. Though some of the mountains mentioned in the
inscription cannot be identified at present, it is
clear that Gautamiputra's kingdom covered not only
the peninsular India, but also the southern parts
of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
He passed away in A.D.86, and his successors witnessed
the dismemberment of their far flung empire. Pulumavi
II succeeded Gautamiputra and ruled for 28 years.
In spite of serious efforts put forth by him to safeguard
the frontiers of his vast empire, the closing years
of his reign witnessed the decline of the Satavahana
authority. Yajnasri Satakarni's accession to the throne
in A.D.128 brought matters to a crisis. He came into
conflict with the Saka Satrap, Rudradamana, and suffered
defeat, and consequently, lost all his western possessions.
However, he continued to rule till A.D.157 over a
truncated dominion. His ship-marked coins suggest
extensive maritime trade during his days. With him
passed away the age of the great Satavahanas and by
the end of the 2nd century A.D., the rule of the Satavahanas
was a matter of past history.
There were different opinions about their capital.
Some argue that Srikakulam in Krishna district was
their capital. Evidences show that Dharanikota in
Guntur district, Dharmapuri in Karimnagar district
and Paithan in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra
State were used as capitals at various periods.
The Deccan, during this period, was an emporium of
inland and maritime trade. The region between the
rivers of Godavari and Krishna was full of ports and
throbbing with activity. There was plentiful currency
to facilitate trade and the Telugus entered upon a
period of great industrial, commercial and maritime
activity.
Buddhism flourished throughout the period and at
the same time the rulers were devoted to Vedic ritualism.
They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas
and Viharas. The Stupa at Amaravati is known for its
architecture par excellence. Satavahanas were not
only the able rulers but were also lovers of literacy
and architecture. The 17th ruler of this dynasty,
Hala was himself a great poet and his ``Gathasaptasati''
in Prakrit was well received by all. Gunadhya, the
minister of Hala was the author of ``Brihatkadha''.
The decline and fall of the Satavahana empire left
the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers
as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms
for themselves and to establish dynasties. During
the period from A.D.180 to A.D.624, Ikshvakus, Brihatphalayanas,
Salankayanas, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas,
Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled over the Andhra
area with their small kingdoms. Such instability continued
to prevail until the rise of the Eastern Chalukyas.
Important among them were the Ikshvakus. The Puranas
mention them as the Sriparvatiyas. The present Nagarjunakonda
was then known as Sriparvata and Vijayapuri, near
it, was their capital. They patronised Buddhism, though
they followed the vedic ritualism. After the Ikshvakus,
a part of the Andhra region north of the river Krishna
was ruled over by Jayavarma of Brihatphalayana gotra.
Salankayanas ruled over a part of the East Coast with
Vengi as their capital. Next to rule were the Vishnukundins
who occupied the territory between the Krishna and
Godavari. It is believed that their capital was Indrapura,
which can be identified with the modern Indrapalagutta
in Ramannapet taluk of Nalgonda district. By A.D.514,
the land north of the Godavari, known, as Kalinga
became independent. The area south of the Krishna
fell to the share of the Pallavas, who ruled from
Kanchi. The Vakatakas occupied the present Telangana.
This state of affairs continued with few changes up
to the beginning of the 7th century A.D.
Buddhism continued, though in a decadent form during
this period. Mahayanism gave wide currency to the
belief that the installation and worship of Buddha
and Bodhisattva images, and the erection of stupas
conferred great merit. The Madhyamika School of thought
in Mahayana was propounded by Nagarjuna. Sanskrit
came to occupy the place of Prakrit as the language
of inscriptions. The Vishnukundins extended patronage
to architecture and sculpture. The cave temples at
Mogalrajapuram and Undavalli near Vijayawada bear
testimony to their artistic taste.
The period of Andhra history, between A.D.624 and
A.D.1323, spanning over seven centuries, is significant
for the sea-change it brought in all spheres of the
human activity; social, religious, linguistic and
literary. During this period, Desi, the indigenous
Telugu language, emerged as a literary medium overthrowing
the domination of Prakrit and Sanskrit. As a result,
Andhradesa achieved an identity and a distinction
of its own as an important constituent of Indian Cultural
set-up.
This change was brought by strong historical forces,
namely, the Eastern and Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas
and the early Cholas. Kakatiyas came to power during
the later half of this period and extended their rule
over the entire Telugu land with the exception of
a small land in the northeast. Arts, crafts, language
and literature flourished under their benevolent patronage.
Eastern Chalukyas:
This dynasty was a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami.
Pulakesin II, the renowned ruler of Chalukyas conquered
Vengi (near Eluru) in A.D.624 and installed his brother
Kubja Vishnuvardhana (A.D.624--641) as its ruler.
His dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled
for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana extended
his dominions up to Srikakulam in the north and Nellore
in the south. He was succeeded by his son Jayasimha
I (A.D.641--673). Between A.D.641 and A.D.705 some
kings, except Jayasimha I and Mangi Yuvaraju, (A.D.681--705)
ruled for short duration. Then followed a period of
unrest characterised by family feuds and weak rulers.
In the meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed ousted
Chalukyas of Badami. The weak rulers of Vengi had
to meet the challenge of the Rashtrakutas, who overran
their kingdom more than once. There was no Eastern
Chalukya ruler who could check them until Gunaga Vijayaditya
came to power in A.D.848. He also failed to face the
Rashtrakutas, and the then Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha
treated him as his ally. After Amoghavarsha's death,
Vijayaditya proclaimed independence. He started on
a campaign to the south and achieved some notable
success. He ruled for 44 years and passed away in
A.D.892. He was succeeded by his brother's son, Chalukya
Bhima (A.D.892--921). Rashtrakutas again attacked
the Vengi kingdom during this period but were repulsed
effectively by Vengi and came to an understanding
with Rashtrakutas and treated them as his allies.
They were able to maintain their independence till
the Chalukyas of Kalyani in A.D.973 overthrew the
Rashtrakutas.
Contemporaries to the Eastern Chalukyas were the
Eastern Gangas in the northeast and the Pallavas in
the south.
The Eastern Gangas appeared in the political scene
towards the close of the 5th century A.D. as rulers
of Orissa. The first known ruler of this dynasty was
Indravarma (6th century A.D.). He had his capital
at Dantapura, but later shifted to Kalinganagara (Mukhalingam
in Srikakulam district). The Gangas ruled with their
capital in Andhra for nearly five centuries, until
it was shifted to Cuttack at the end of the 11th century
A.D. The early Eastern Gangas were ruling a small
territory in Srikakulam district in the Telugu land.
The Pallava rule, which was earlier eclipsed by the
onslaught of the Kalabhras, was revived during the
last quarter of the 6th century A.D. by Simhavishnu,
a scion of the Pallava ruling family and was firmly
established at Kanchi. This new dynasty of the Pallavas
is known as the `Greater Pallavas' or the `Later Pallavas'
dynasty. The earliest Pallava ruler was Virakurcha
and the most famous of them was Trilochana Pallava.
An inscription noticed at Manchikallu, near Macherla
in Guntur district is the earliest epigraphical record
of the Pallava family. The entire territory south
of the Krishna held sway over by Mahendravarman (A.D.600--630),
son of Simhavishnu of the Later Pallavas. From the
7th century A.D. onwards, the Pallavas has to face
the expanding Chalukya power. The conflict continued
for a long time with varying degrees of success. But
the extermination of the Chalukyas of Badami by the
Rashtrakutas gave respite to the Pallavas to consolidate
their power. The Pallavas continued till the end of
the 9th century A.D., when a new power, the Cholas
of Tanjore, displaced them and occupied Kanchipuram.
Among the minor Chalukya families that ruled parts
of Andhra, those of Vemulavada (presently in Karimnagar
district) are the most important. Their rule extended
over the present-day Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts.
As subordinate rulers loyal to the Rashtrakutas, they
ruled with semi-independent status for about two centuries
(A.D.755--968). The rule of the Vemulavada Chalukyas
coincided with that of the Rashtrakutas. One peculiarity
with this family is that it traced its descent from
the Sun, while many other Chalukya families considered
themselves as of lunar descent.
The Cholas attained the status of a major power in
south India under the valiant leadership of Rajaraja
I (A.D.985--1016). Two rebel princes of the Eastern
Chalukya family sought refuge in his court. Rajaraja
I utilised the claim of one of these princes, Saktivarma,
as a pretext for intervening in the affairs of Vengi.
He was successful in seating Saktivarma on the throne
of Vengi and, from that time, the Eastern Chalukyas
played a role subservient to the Cholas. But the Telugu
country became a cockpit of battles between the Cholas
and the Chalukyas of Kalyani who supported a rival
claimant to the throne of the Vengi each time. An
Eastern Chalukya Prince, Rajendra, occupied the Chola
throne in A.D. 1070 under the name of Kulottunga I.
Nevertheless, Vijayaditya VII, a cousin of Rajaraja,
continued to rule over Vengi till his death in A.D.1076
when the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.
The Eastern Chalukyas occupied a prominent place
in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Though they were
originally of Kannada stock, they patronised Telugu
and gave fillip to it. Since the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya,
inscriptions show Telugu stanzas, culminating in the
production of literary works. Later on, in the 11th
century under the patronage of the then Eastern Chalukya
king, Rajaraja, the great epic, `Mahabharata' was
translated partly by his court poet, Nannaya.
At the time of Chalukya conquest three religions,
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, were prevalent. Of
these, Buddhism was on the wane. The Buddhist Aramas
were transformed into pilgrim centres by the resurgent
Hinduism. Jainism lingered on, and an appreciable
section of the people paid homage to the Tirthankaras.
Hinduism enjoyed the status of a national religion
throughout the kingdom. Temples were built which played
an important role in the religious life of the people
and the temples of Siva at Chalukya Bhimavaram and
Draksharama are among them.
The 12th century A.D. was a period of chaos. The
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, who were at first successful
in overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas, were driven
out after 17 years by the Imperial Cholas with the
help of local chiefs. But the latter did not rule
directly and thought it prudent to leave the kingdom
to the feudatories themselves in lieu of nominal allegiance.
The Velanati Cholas of Tsandavolu (Guntur district)
were the foremost among the feudatories. Between A.D.1135
and 1206, several minor dynasties ruled over parts
of Andhra Pradesh recognising the authority of the
Velanati Cholas nominally. The chiefs of these dynasties
fought amongst themselves, and one such struggle among
them was the `Palnati Yuddham'.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD:
Kakatiyas:
The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence
of the Kakatiyas. They were at first the feudatories
of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a
small territory near Warangal. A ruler of this dynasty,
Prola II, who ruled from A.D.1110 to 1158, extended
his sway to the south and declared his independence.
His successor Rudra (A.D.1158--1195) pushed the kingdom
to the north up to the Godavari delta. He built a
fort at Warangal to serve as a second capital and
faced the invasions of the Yadavas of Devagiri. The
next ruler Mahadeva extended the kingdom to the coastal
area. In A.D.1199, Ganapati succeeded him. He was
the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after
the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under
one rule. He put an end to the rule of the Velanati
Cholas in A.D.1210. He forced the Telugu Cholas of
Vikramasimhapura to accept his suzerainty. He established
order in his vast dominion and encouraged trade.
As Ganapati Deva had no sons, his daughter Rudramba
succeeded him in A.D.1262 and carried on the administration.
Some generals, who did not like to be ruled by her,
rebelled. She could, however, suppress the internal
rebellions and external invasions with the help of
loyal subordinates. The Cholas and the Yadavas suffered
such set backs at her hands that they did not think
of troubling her for the rest of her rule.
Prataparudra succeeded his grandmother Rudramba in
A.D.1295 and ruled till A.D.1323. He pushed the western
border of his kingdom up to Raichur. He introduced
many administrative reforms. He divided the kingdom
into 75 Nayakships, which was later adopted and developed
by the Rayas of Vijayanagara. In his time the territory
constituting Andhra Pradesh had the first experience
of a Muslim invasion. In A.D.1303, the Delhi Sultan
Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army to plunder the kingdom.
But Prataparudra defeated them at Upparapalli in Karimnagar
district. In A.D. 1310, when another army under Malik
Kafur invaded Warangal, Prataparudra yielded and agreed
to pay a large tribute. In A.D.1318, when Ala-ud-din
Khilji died, Prataparudra withheld the tribute. It
provoked another invasion of the Muslims. In A.D.1321,
Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh
Khan to conquer the Telugu country then called Tilling.
He laid siege to Warangal, but owing to internal dissensions
he called off the siege and returned to Delhi. Within
a short period, he came back with a much bigger army.
In spite of unpreparedness, Prataparudra fought bravely.
For want of supplies, he surrendered to the enemy
who sent him to Delhi as a prisoner, and he died on
the way. Thus ended the Kakatiya rule, opening the
gates of the Telugu land to anarchy and confusion
yielding place to an alien ruler.
The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest
period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking
area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged
Telugu. They established order throughout the strife
torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant
role in the defence of the realm. Anumakonda and Gandikota
among the `giridurgas', Kandur and Narayanavanam among
the `vanadurgas', Divi and Kolanu among the `jaladurgas',
and Warangal and Dharanikota among the `sthaladurgas'
were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the
Kakatiya period. The administration of the kingdom
was organized with accent on the military.
Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the
masses, intellectuals favoured revival of Vedic rituals.
They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the
Saivites through the worship of Harihara. Arts and
literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their
feudatories. Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court
of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the
last 15 cantos of the Mahabharata which was lying
unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place
in the Muslim-occupied north, received encouragement
at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself
a writer and he encouraged other literature.
The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through
religious art. Kakatiya art preserved the balance
between architecture and sculpture, that is, while
valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture
where due. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly
to Siva, reveal in their construction a happy blending
of the styles of North India and South India which
influenced the political life of the Deccan.
The most important of these temples are those at
Palampeta, Hanamkonda and the incomplete one in the
Warangal fort. The temple at Palampeta, described
as the `brightest gem in the galaxy of Medieval Deccan
temple architecture', was constructed by Recherla
Rudra, a general of Kakatiya Ganapati, in S.1135 (A.D.1213).
The figures in the temple are of a heterogeneous character
comprising gods, goddesses, warriors, acrobats, musicians,
mithuna pairs in abnormal attitudes and dancing girls.
The sculptures, especially of the dancing girls, possess
the suggestion of movement and pulsating life. A striking
peculiarity of this temple is the figure-brackets
which spring from the shoulders of the outer pillars
of the temple. The figure-brackets are mere ornaments
and represent the intermediate stage between their
earlier analogues at Sanchi and the later examples
at Vijayanagara.
The Thousand-Pillared Temple at Hanamkonda, built
by the Kakatiya king Rudra in A.D.1162, is similar
in style and workmanship to the Ramappa temple. This
temple, dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Surya, is star-shaped.
The Nandi pavilion, in which a huge granite bull still
stands, the beautiful entrances to the shrine, the
pierced slabs used for screens and windows, and the
elegant open work by which the bracket-shafts are
attached to the pillars are the other most interesting
features of this temple.
The temple in the Warangal fort, believed to have
been built by Kakatiya Ganapati, was constructed making
use of large slabs. The floor of the shrine is beautifully
polished and shines like a mirror. An interesting
feature of this temple is the four gateways called
`Kirti Stambhas' which face the four cardinal points
of the compass. In their design the gateways are reminiscent
of the `toranas' of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. The
architecture and sculpture of these temples are thus
conventional to a degree but no one can deny their
magnificence nor can any one fail to see the rich
imagination, patient industry and skilful workmanship
of the builders of the temples of the Kakatiya period.
After the fall of Kakatiyas, uncertainty prevailed
over the region. Several small kingdoms came into
existence, Musunuri Nayakas occupied Warangal from
Muslims and ruled between A.D.1325--1368. The fall
of Kakatiya kingdom and its annexation to the Tughlak
empire made the Hindu feudatories to unite themselves
to liberate the Andhra country from alien rulers.
A movement was started at Rekapalli on the bank of
the Godavari under the leadership of Musunuri Prolaya
Nayaka and his cousin Kapaya Nayaka and succeeded
in driving away the Muslims from the Telugu country
in A.D.1328. Kapaya Nayaka became the ruler in A.D.1333,
after the demise of Prolaya Nayaka, and Warangal was
once again the capital of the Telugu Country. They
were dethroned by Recherla Chiefs and ruled the entire
Telangana from A.D.1325 to 1474 with Rachakonda as
their capital. The coastal area was ruled by the Reddis
of Kondavidu between A.D.1325 and 1424. Addanki was
their first capital which was later shifted to Kondavidu.
There was also another branch of Reddis at Rajahmundry.
In due course, Reddi kingdom disappeared in the hands
of Vijayanagar kings, and Gajapatis of Orissa in the
frequent battles with each other. The Gajapatis of
Orissa with Cuttack as their capital extended their
territory far into Telugu land by conquering the Reddis
of Rajahmundry in A.D.1448. They also occupied some
parts of the Bahmani kingdom. But, Vijayanagar king,
Krishnadevaraya, occupied the entire Telugu region
that was in the possession of Gajapatis.
The Reddis and Recherla chiefs were the patrons of
learning. The renowned poet Srinatha, and one of the
three great poets who wrote the Mahabharata in Telugu,
Errapraggada lived in that age.
Bahmanis:
The disastrous fall of Warangal in A.D.1323 brought
the Andhras, for the first time in their history,
under the yoke of an alien ruler, the Muslims. In
A.D.1347 an independent Muslim State, the Bahmani
kingdom was established in south India by Alla-ud-din
Hasan Gangu by revolting against the Delhi Sultanate.
To stabilise his position, Hasan waged wars to annexe
the two neighbouring Hindu kingdoms, Warangal, under
the Musunuri Nayakas, and Vijayanagar, which was under
the Rayas. He occupied the area up to the river Tungabhadra
in A.D.1358, and shifted his capital from Daulatabad
to Gulbarga. The Hindu rulers, however, reoccupied
their lost territory during the period between A.D.1358--75.
Harihara Raya II of Vijayanagar conquered many areas
which were under the Bahmanis during the period of
Muhammad Shah II (A.D.1378-1397). The successors of
Muhammad Shah II, who were also hostile to Rayas of
Vijayanagar, waged wars against them. But they were
defeated by the Vijayanagar armies. During the reign
of Muhammad III (A.D.1463--82), the Bahmanis, for
the first time, extended their empire from sea to
sea and thereby got into their possession a large
part of the Telugu area, namely, the area north of
the Krishna up to the coast and the present Guntur
district. By the end of the 15th century the Bahmani
rule was plagued with faction fights and there came
into existence the five Shahi kingdoms, the Nizamshahis
of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahis of Bijapur, the Imadshahis
of Berar, the Qutbshahis of Golconda and the Baridshahis
of Bidar. Thereafter, the rule of the Bahmani dynasty
came to an end in A.D.1527. Of the five Shahi dynasties,
it was the Qutbshahi dynasty that played a significant
and notable role in the history of Andhras.
Vijayanagar:
The year A.D.1336 saw the emergence of a new power,
the kingdom of Vijayanagar in the south-western part
of Andhra on the banks of the Tungabhadra. It was
founded by two Sangama brothers, Harihara and Bukka,
with the blessings of a great saint patriot of medieval
India, Vidyaranya, and Harihara became its first ruler.
It was that great kingdom which, by resisting the
onslaughts of Muslims, championed the cause of Hindu
civilisation and culture in its polity, its learning
and arts.
The two brothers took possession of Kampili from
Hoyasala ruler of Karnataka, Ballala III. They later
established a new city on the southern bank of Tungabhadra,
opposite Anegondi, and gave a name to it as Vijayanagar
or Vidyanagar. They expanded their territory by occupying
the Udayagiri fort in the Nellore region and Penukonda
fort from Hoyasalas. Meanwhile the Bahmani Kingdom
came into existence in the Deccan. In the conflicts
between the Bahmanis and Vijayanagar, Harihara-I lost
some territory. After his death in A.D.1355, his brother
Bukkaraya succeeded him. On account of frequent wars
with Bahmanis, Bukka could not do anything in the
initial period, however, he conquered Madhura and
extended his territory to the south up to Rameswaram.
Harihara II (A.D.1377--1404), who ascended the throne
after Bukkaraya, consolidated and its frontiers further
extended. During this time coastal Andhra lying between
Nellore and Kalinga was under the Reddis of Kondavidu.
Harihara II carried on campaign, for gaining control
over the territory, against the Reddis and wrested
Addanki and Srisailam areas from the Reddis. This
led to clashes with the Velamas of Rachakonda in Telangana.
To counter attack, Rachakonda sought help from Bahmanis
and this checkmated Harihara II from proceeding further
into Telangana. The extension of Vijayanagar territory
towards northwest gave it control over the ports of
Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol and led to an expansion of
commerce and ensuing prosperity.
In the dispute between sons, after the death of Harihara
II, Devaraya I (A.D.1406--422) emerged victorious
and ascended the throne only to wage wars against
the Bahmanis, the Velamas of Telangana and the Reddis
of Kondavidu. His reign also saw the commencement
of hostilities between the Gajapatis of Kalinga and
the Rayas of Vijayanagar. Devaraya I passed away in
A.D.1422. His sons, Ramachandraraya and Vijayaraya
I, who ruled one after the other, did not do anything
significant.
The next ruler, Devaraya II (A.D.1426-1446), son
of Vijayaraya, was a great monarch. He effected the
conquest of Kondavidu and carried his arms into Kerala,
subjugating the ruler of Quilon and other chieftains.
The writings of Abdul Razzak, the Persian ambassador,
who visited south India during the reign of Devaraya
II, bear testimony to the supremacy of the king over
many ports of south India. According to him, the dominions
of Devaraya II extended from Ceylon to Gulbarga and
from Orissa to Malbar. The relations between the Vijayanagar
and Bahmani kingdoms continued to be hostile during
the reign of Devaraya II also. Devaraya was a great
builder and a patron of poets. Extensive commerce
and revenues from various sources contributed to the
prosperity of the Vijayanagar kingdom under him.
But the kings who succeeded Devaraya II were quite
incompetent and allowed the empire to disintegrate.
To add to this, there was pressure from Bahmani Sultans.
The Portuguese were also rapidly trying to establish
themselves on the west coast and in the ports along
it.
The Vijayanagar minister, Saluva Narasimha, who usurped
the throne in A.D.1485 could successfully counter
these forces. Thus the Saluva line of kings came to
rule Vijayanagar. However, he had to spend a good
deal of his time and energy putting down many rebel
chieftains. He died in A.D.1490 leaving his two sons
to the care of Narasanayaka of the Tuluva family,
a trusted general. Narasanayaka assumed himself the
power as a regent in A.D.1492 keeping the real rule
under tutelage. Narasanayaka died in A.D.1503 and
by that time he had established his authority effectively
over the whole of his extensive dominion. His son,
Vira Narasimha, succeeded him as the regent and proclaimed
himself as a ruler in A.D.1506, thus inaugurating
the third dynasty. He died in A.D.1509 and his brother,
Krishnadevaraya, succeeded him.
The period of Krishnadevaraya was considered as the
golden age of the Vijayanagar history. He was a great
warrior, statesman, administrator and a patron of
arts. His first task was to repulse the Bahmanis.
He occupied Raichur doab, carried the war up to Gulbarga
and returned successfully. He extended his dominion
in the east and north-east by defeating the Gajapatis
of Orissa in A.D.1518.
Krishna Devaraya died in A.D.1529. After his death,
Vijayanagar kingdom started declining gradually. There
was a tussle for power and the rulers spent their
time in struggle against internal revolts. The five
Muslim rulers in Deccan kingdom, took this opportunity,
united and formed a league and marched towards Vijayanagar
with combined forces. In a decisive battle fought
on the 23rd January, 1565 on the south bank of the
Krishna near the village of Rakkasi Tangadi, Vijayanagar
was defeated and Ramaraya, who led the Vijayanagar
armies, was killed. Tirumalaraya, the younger brother
of Ramaraya, along with his puppet ruler, Sadasivaraya
fled to Penukonda in Anantapur district with all the
treasure. The victorious armies of Muslims then marched
towards Vijayanagar. Uninhibited looting of the city
by the Muslim rulers as well as the ruthless robbers
went on for days together. Never perhaps in the history
of the world has such havoc been brought and wrought
on such a splendid city teening with a wealthy and
industrious population in prosperity one day and on
the next seized, pillaged and reduced to ruins amid
scenes of savage measures and horrors beggaring description.
Tirumalaraya after reaching Penukonda ruled for some
time and tried his best to rebuild the empire but
failed. The last ruler of Vijayanagar dynasty was
Sriranga (A.D.1642--1681).
The Rayas of Vijayanagar regarded all sects of Hindus
alike, built temples to Siva and Vishnu and patronised
them by lavish grants. They patronised even Jains
and Muslims. The Vijayanagar architecture fused various
elements of the Chalukya and Chola art, and produced
extremely beautiful gopuras and mantapas. The most
typical of them can be found at Tirupati, Tadpatri,
Srikalahasti and Penukonda. The Tadpatri and Lepakshi
temples are the notable examples of Vijayanagar architecture
and sculpture.
Telugu language and literature was given a preferential
treatment and Telugu was treated as official language
of the empire. Simultaneously, Sanskrit and other
languages were encouraged by the Vijayanagar rulers.
The renowned Telugu poet Srinatha was honoured with
Kanakabhisheka by Proudhadevaraya of the first dynasty
of the rulers. Particularly, the reign of Krishnadevaraya
marked a new era in the literary history of south
India. He was himself a scholar and authored Amuktamalyada,
a celebrated Telugu work. His court known as Bhuvanavijayam,
was adorned by such eminent poets like Allasani Peddana,
Nandi Timmana, Dhurjati, Tenali Ramakrishna, Mallana,
Ramarajabhushana, Pingali Surana and Rudra, known
as Ashtadiggajas. The greatest of them was Allasani
Peddana whose famous work Manucharitra heralded the
eminence of the native genius of Telugus.
Qutb Shahis:
The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra
country for about two hundred years from the early
part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century.
Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the dynasty,
served the Bahmanis faithfully and was appointed governor
of Telangana in A.D.1496. He declared independence
after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah, in
A.D.1518. During his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended
his kingdom upto Machilipatam. He was murdered by
his third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli.
Jamsheed reigned for seven years till A.D.1550 but
remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime.
His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly thirteen
at the time of his father's assassination, fled to
Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him
a training ground and he learned the art of administration.
After Jamsheed's death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim returned
to Golconda and ascended the throne. Ibrahim Qutb
Shah, who was known as Malkibharam in the Andhra country,
was the real architect of the Golconda kingdom. He
ruled the kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to A.D.1580.
He organised the central and provincial governments
and brought them into close contact. He also introduced
an efficient intelligence service which kept him informed
on all affairs. The kingdom was made safe for travel
and trade. Ibrahim had also many works of public utility
to his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out
towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language
Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars and poets like,
Telaganarya and Gangadhara who dedicated their works
to him.
Ibrahim took an active part in the battle of Rakkasi
Tangadi in A.D.1565. It immensely benefitted him in
cash and territories, and the kingdom was extended
to the south as far as Madras and Gandikota.
The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim's son
and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. Muhammad
Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great writer and a builder.
The city of Hyderabad was laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent
buildings, straight roads and other civic amenities.
For this purpose, he invited many Persians to settle
down in Hyderabad and Machilipatam. He was a scholar
and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the
Deccani language. Muhammad Quli was succeeded by his
nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in A.D.1612.
He was highly religious and a model of virtue and
piety. He followed his uncle in promoting learning
and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca
Masjid in Hyderabad was designed and its foundation
laid by him, though the main structure of the Mosque
was completed during the next four generations.
Sultan Muhammad's premature death in A.D.1626 was
a sad prelude to the decline and fall of Golconda.
He was succeeded by his minor son, Abdullah Qutb Shah,
who was indolent. The fall of Ahmadnagar in A.D.1633
to the Mughals exposed Golconda. Abdullah Qutb Shah
acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mughals and concluded
a treaty in A.D.1636. He was reduced to vassalage
and the Mughal Hajib, a resident officer of the Mughals
imposed on him, interfered in day-to-day administration
and encouraged fissiparous tendencies. The traitors
of Golconda found their strength in the Mughals who
did not hesitate to invade Golconda.
Abdullah Qutb Shah died in A.D.1672 and was succeeded
by his third son-in-law, Abul Hassan Qutb Shah, popularly
known as Tana Shah. He had a steady mind, broader
vision and administrative experience of a high order.
He handled the domestic and foreign affairs deftly
and put forth all his efforts against the Mughal tide.
Abul Hassan and his kingdom were misrepresented by
false propaganda to justify the interference of the
Mughal emperor who contemplated to liquidate the Deccan
Sultanates and incorporate it in the Mughal empire.
The emperor came to the Deccan in A.D.1682 and launched
his campaign against both the Marathas and the Deccan
Sultanates. His original plan was to put down the
Maratha power, but later on, he suspended the plan
and directed his forces against Bijapur and Golconda
in A.D.1685. Bijapur fell in after two months' siege.
But Golconda held out for a long time. It came to
an abrupt end owing to the treachery of an Afghan
general, Abdullah Khan, who opened the gate in the
dead of night and facilitated the capture of the fort.
The equanimity with which Abul Hassan Tana Shah had
faced the Mughal captors and the unequalled loyalty
of Abdul Razak Lari, who remained faithful to his
king, Tana Shah, are of special significance.
The fall of Golconda in A.D.1687 had far reaching
consequences. It halted the face of cultural progress
for years and relaxed the administrative grip on the
English Company at Masulipatam and Madras. So long
as the kingdom was powerful in the south, the king
Abul Hassan and his Minister, Madanna, kept their
constant vigil on the English merchants.
Qutb Shahi rulers adopted religious tolerance. They
treated Hindus equal with Muslims as well and maintained
cordial relations between the two throughout. They
encouraged the local language Telugu besides the Deccani
Urdu. They patronised scholars and awarded them titles
and Jagirs. The builder of Hyderabad, Muhammad Quli
Qutb Shah was an eminent poet in Persian and was an
author of several Persian works. The fourth king,
Ibrahim was a great patron of Telugu. His court was
crowded with Telugu poets besides many others. The
rulers adopted the local customs to a great extent.
This tolerance and patronage of the kings were followed
by the nobles as well. Ramadas (Goppanna), a great
devotee of Sri Rama who lived in the period of Abul
Hassan, wrote a number of poetical works and songs
in praise of his deity.
The Deccani architecture, is a combination of Persian,
Hindu and Pathan styles. They mostly borrowed heavily
from Hindu style of architecture. The Bala Hissar
gate of the Golconda fort is remarkable for the figures
and emblems of Hindu mythology.
The citadel of Hyderabad, the Charminar is the most
remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi monuments. It is
one of the magnificent structures in India.
The socio-cultural life of the people during the
rule of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of
broad-mindedness and catholicity based on sharing
and adopting of mutual traditions and customs.
The Mughal Rule:
Aurangazeb, the Mughal emperor, invaded Golconda
in A.D.1687 and annexed it to the Mughal empire. When
this was done, Golconda became part of the Deccan
Subha and a Nazim was appointed as an agent of the
Mughal emperor. Thus, for about a period of 35 years
it was ruled by Nazims, the last one being Mubariz
Khan.
The period between A.D.1687 and A.D.1724 saw several
sea changes. Aurangazeb died in A.D.1707. The administrative
machinery of the Mughal imperial regime began to crumble
and the central authority manned by successive feeble
rulers gradually lost control over the provinces.
In Deccan, situated far away from the capital, the
state of affairs was still worse. This anarchy contributed
much in giving a new turn to Indian history. It enabled
two foreign mercantile companies to consolidate themselves
as political powers capable of subsequently playing
decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation.
They were the East India Company of England and the
Compagnie de Inde Orientale of France. These trading
companies had their headquarters at Madras and Pondicherry
respectively and both had trade centres at Masulipatam.
They were waiting for suitable opportunities to expand
their areas of control and so, did not hesitate to
take sides in the local skirmishes.
MODERN PERIOD:
Asaf Jahis:
The founder of this dynasty was one Mir Kamaruddin,
a noble and a courtier of the Mughal Muhammad Shah,
who negotiated for a peace treaty with Nadirshah,
the Iranian invader; got disgusted with the intrigues
that prevailed in Delhi. He was on his way back to
the Deccan, where, earlier he was a Subedar. But he
had to confront Mubariz Khan, as a result of a plot
by the Mughal emperor to kill the former. Mubariz
Khan failed in his attempt and he was himself slain.
This took place in A.D.1724, and henceforth Mir Kamaruddin,
who assumed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk, conducted
himself as an independent prince. Earlier, while he
was one of the Ministers of the Mughal emperor Muhammad
Shah, the latter conferred on him the title of Asaf
Jah. Thus begins the Asaf Jahi rule over Golconda
with the capital at Aurangabad. It was only during
Nizam II rule that the capital of the Deccan Subha
was shifted to Hyderabad reviving its importance.
The Asafjahi Nizams are generally counted as seven,
though they were ten. Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung,
son and grandson of the Nizam I who were killed by
the Kurnool and Cuddapah Nawabs and Salabatjung who
also ruled for a decade, were not counted by the historians
though the Mughal emperors at Delhi recognised them
as Subedars of the Deccan.
The Nizams of Asafjahi dynasty who ruled the Deccan
are the following:---
(1) Mir Kamaruddin (Nizam-ul-Mulk - Asaf Jah I) (A.D.1724--1748),
(2) Nasir Jung (A.D. 1748--1751), (3) Muzaffar Jung
(A.D.1750--1751), (4) Salabat Jung (AD.1751--1761),
(5) Nizam Ali Khan - Asaf Jah II (A.D.1762--1803),
(6) Nizam III Sikandar Jah (A.D.1803--1829), (7) Nizam
IV -- Nasir-ud-Daula (A.D.1829--1857), (8) Nizam V
-- Afzal-ud-Daula (A.D.1857--1869), (9) Nizam VI --
Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (A.D.1869--1911), and (10) Nizam
VII -- Mir Osman Ali Khan (AD.1911--1948 September).
Though Hyderabad was founded in A.D.1590--91 and
built by Muhammad Quli, the fifth king of the Qutbshahi
dynasty, it was a princely capital under them. The
pomp and peagantry of the fabulous Asafjahi Nizams
gained an all-India importance as well as World wide
recognition. The rule of the Nizams lasted not only
for a much longer period from A.D.1724 to 1948 but
also concerned a large territory with diverse language
groups that came under their sway.
The authority of the founder of the State of Hyderabad,
Asafjah I, extended from Narmada to Trichinapally
and from Masulipatam to Bijapur. During the period
of Afzal-ud-Daula (A.D.1857--1869) it was estimated
to be 95,337 sq.miles (2,46,922.83 sq.kms.), forming
a lateral square of more than 450 miles (724.17 kms.)
each way.
After Nizam I, Asaf Jah, died in A.D.1748, there
was tussle for power among his son, Nasar Jung, and
grandson Muzaffar Jung. The English supported Nasar
Jung whereas Muzaffar Jung got support from the French.
These two heirs were subsequently killed by Nawabs
of Kurnool and Cuddapah, one after another, in A.D.1750
and AD.1751 respectively. The third son of Nizam I,
Salabat Jung became the ruler as Nizam under the support
of the French.
Hostilities recommenced in India between the French
and the English in AD.1758 on the outbreak of Seven
Years War in Europe in A.D.1756. As a result, the
French lost their power in India and consequently
it also lost influence at Hyderabad. In A.D.1762 Nizam
Ali Khan dislodged Salabat Jung and proclaimed himself
as Nizam.
Hyderabad came into focus again when Nizam Ali Khan
(Nizam II) in A.D.1763 shifted the capital of the
Deccan from Aurangabad to Hyderabad. Such a move helped
rapid economic growth and expansion of the city, resulting
in its importance and prosperity.
Between A.D.1766 and A.D.1800, Nizam's sovereignty
had declined considerably and the British gained their
authority over the Nizams by compelling the latter
to sign six treaties.
In A.D.1766, the Nizam signed a treaty with the British,
whereby in return for the Northern Circars, the British
agreed to furnish Nizam Ali Khan with a subsidiary
force as and when required and to pay Rs.9 lakhs per
annum when the assistance of the troops was not required
in lieu of Northern Circars to be ceded to them. In
A.D.1768 he signed another treaty conferring the Northern
Circars to the British and the payment by the British
was reduced to Rs.7 lakhs. According to another treaty,
he surrendered the Guntur circar in A.D.1788. In A.D.1779,
the Nizam conspired with Hyder Ali of Mysore and the
Peshwa of the Marathas to drive away the English.
When they learnt about his designs, the English marched
against the Nizam who had to sue for peace agreeing
to the presence of an English Resident along with
army, artillery and cavalry at Hyderabad. Through
another treaty, the Nizam was compelled to disassociate
himself from Hyder Ali. In A.D.1800 yet another treaty
was signed by the Nizam with the British altering
the earlier treaties to increase the strength of the
English army in Hyderabad. In lieu of the cost of
maintenance of the force, the Nizam had to cede to
the company an area comprising the districts of Rayalaseema
and Bellary (now in Karnataka). With this the Nizam
lost not only the territory but also reputation and
power.
The East India Company acquired the Nellore region
comprising the present Nellore and Prakasam districts
and a part of the Chittoor district from the Nawab
of Arcot in A.D.1781. Together with the other parts
of the territories of the Nawab, this area was merged
with the then Madras Presidency of the Company in
A.D.1801. Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century,
the Telugu land was divided into major divisions:
one that came to be popularly called Telangana under
the feudal rule of the Nizam, accounting approximately
one-third of the entire land and the other, broadly
designated as Andhra, in British India.
It was during the period of Nizam III -- Sikandar
Jah (A.D.1803--1829), that the English cantonment,
raised on the other side of Hussain Sagar, was named
after him as Secunderabad. This township grew rapidly
as the modern town with Railway station and other
commercial establishments. The notable events under
the rule (A.D. 1857--1869) of Nizam V, Afzal-ud-Daula,
were the construction of the Afzal Gunj Bridge or
the Nayapul, over the river Musi and the establishment
of a General Hospital.
The modern era of the development of the twin cities
began soon after the last flood of the river Musi
in A.D.1908 which had shattered the life of the people
living in Hyderabad. This necessitated the planned
development of the city in a phased manner. Sri M.Vishweshwarayya,
the great engineer of Mysore, was specially invited
for this purpose and was appointed as adviser to the
Nizam's Government to suggest measures for flood control
and improvement of the city. As a result of his suggestion,
Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar were constructed in
A.D.1917. These two dams not only controlled the floods
from river Musi, but also supplied drinking water
to the city. These spots have also become recreational
centres for many people in Hyderabad. Another step
taken for the development of the city was the formation
of the City Improvement Board in A.D.1912, which paid
greater attention to the construction of roads, markets,
housing sites and shopping centres in the city. Nizam
VII, Osman Ali Khan, also moved to Kingkothi, the
northern suburb of the city in A.D.1914, which helped
in the development of its surroundings. Several public
utility services were commissioned in A.D.1922. Electricity
was commissioned in A.D.1923. In A.D.1928 with the
establishment of rail connection to Bangalore, the
city was brought on the metre-gauge map of India.
By A.D.1932 bus service was started in the city and
in A.D.1936 the bus routes radiated from the capital
to all the district headquarters. In A.D.1935, the
Madras-Karachi Air Service was linked with Hyderabad
with Hakimpet as landing ground.
Many buildings of utility like Legislative Assembly,
Hyderabad and Secunderabad railway stations, the High
Court, City College, the Asafia Library (present State
Central Library), the Unani Hospital, the Osmania
University, were constructed during the reign of Nizam
VII.
If Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was the founder of Hyderabad
City, Osman Ali Khan, the Nizam VII, can be called
as the maker of modern Hyderabad, in a variety of
ways. The buildings constructed during his reign are
impressive and represent a rich variety of architecture,
such as the magnificent Osmania University, synthesizing
the modern, the medieval and the ancient styles of
architecture. The sprawling Osmania General Hospital
in the Mughal style, the lofty High Court in Indo-Saracenic
style, the stately well-proportioned Legislative Assembly
building in Saracenic-Rajasthani style, symbolize
his desire to build modern and majestic Hyderabad.
The engineers or the architects and craftsmen of the
period have to be congratulated for their talent.
A fascinating pretty edifice in the centre of the
city is the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly building,
with the lawns of the Public Gardens, to form the
needed premises.
The noble buildings during the Asafjahis' period
were the Chow Mahalla during Nizam V, Pancha Mahal,
and the Falaknuma Palace. The Falaknuma, built by
Nawab Viquar-ul-Umra, a Paigha Noble in A.D.1892 at
a cost of Rs.40 lakhs, has become a land mark like
Charminar.
The hereditary Diwans of the Nizams, the Salar Jungs
were as colourful and dazzling as their masters. The
Mir Alam Tank, the Mir Alam Mandi, the Salar Jung
Museum, their Devdi, the Aliya School are inalienable
parts of Hyderabad.
Under the Company and the Crown:
It naturally took some years for the East India Company
to consolidate and stabilize its rule in the Telugu
area, which came under its direct rule. In the initial
stages, the Company had to counter strong resistance
from the Zamindars in the coastal Andhra and the Palegars
in the Rayalaseema districts, that were in existence
from the ancient Hindu rulers or the medieval Muslim
rulers. The Company decided to use the Zamindari system
to its best advantage, entrusting the Zamindars only
with collection of land revenue and taking away from
them the executive and judicial powers. The Company
also introduced the system of `Permanent Settlement'
in A.D.1802.
In Rayalaseema, the first Principal Collector, Thomas
Munro, of the ceded districts suppressed all the Palegars
and established a new mode of collection of land revenue
directly from the tiller of the soil in A.D.1808.
This system came to be known as `Ryotwari' system.
The administrative measures taken by the Company
in the rest of the Telugu land also led to similar
changes in the Hyderabad State of which Telangana
formed a major constituent. The famine of A.D.1777
and the devastating flood in the succeeding year greatly
impoverished the State of Hyderabad and its economy
was badly affected. The unwise policies of the rulers
led the State on the verge of bankruptcy by neck-deep
debts and the Nizam was harassed by Arab and Rohilla
bankers. In such situation, the Company, through its
Resident, intervened and saved the Nizam. Thus, the
Nizam became a dependable friend of the Company and
his support to the Company in the crucial period of
the War of Independence in A.D.1857 (otherwise called
Sepoy Mutiny) turned out to be decisive factor in
clinching the issue in favour of the Company's rule
in India. In A.D.1858 the British crown took over
the reign in the entire India.
Thus, the British, who entered India in the early
17th century as a trading company, gained power as
its ruler for over a century and a half.
Freedom Struggle:
The role of the Andhras in the Freedom Struggle is
next to that of none and they had always been in the
forefront along with the rest of the countrymen. The
first War of Independence in A.D.1857 did in no way
affect the state of affairs in the south, though ripples
were felt in the State of Hyderabad, in the shape
of a raid by Rohilla and Arab soldiers against the
Residency and a rebellion by the Gonds in the Adilabad
district under the leadership of Ramji Gond. However,
in A.D.1860, the English suppressed all these rebellions.
The rest of the 19th century passed away without
any event of major importance, though occasional rebellions
of the peasants here and there brought out their dissatisfaction
to the forefront. The introduction of English education
helped the formation of a strong educated middle class,
which found security of life in the Government jobs.
Agriculture became the mainstay of the people, as
the cottage industries, especially the cloth industry,
dwindled due to the deliberate policy of the Government
to encourage British industries and trade at the expense
of the indigenous ones. However, construction of dams
across the Godavari and the Krishna by A.D.1852 and
1855 respectively, resulted in increasing agricultural
production and helped, for a time, to cloud the real
issues.
The beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence
of the numerically strong, educated, confident but
dissatisfied middle class, seeking equality with the
white ruler. The dissatisfaction, as elsewhere, was
voiced in the form of pamphleteering. The foreign
government, ever vigilant in such things, sought to
nip it in the bud and as a consequence of it, repressive
measures were introduced. Gadicherla Hari Sarvottama
Rao (1883--1960) was the first victim of the move
in Andhra. He was sentenced for his seditious article
`Cruel Foreign Tiger'. The young men of Andhra had
their own share in the `Vande Mataram' and `Home Rule'
movements also.
But, along with this agitation, a kind of constructive
work was also carried on by some fore-sighted leaders
such as Kopalle Hanumantha Rao (1880--1922). Long
before Gandhiji thought of the constructive programme,
Hanumantha Rao founded his `Andhra Jateeya Kalasala'
(National College) in Masulipatam to train young men
in techniques of modern production, as he thought
that it was the surest way to win independence from
an imperialist rule which cared more for its markets
than anything else.
In 1920, when Gandhiji started his non-co-operation
movement, it had an immediate response in Andhra.
Under the leadership of eminent men like Konda Venkatappaiah
(1866--1948), Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu (1872--1957),
Bulusu Sambamurti (1886--1958) and Bhogaraju Pattabhi
Seetaramaiah (1880--1959), the Andhra young men made
many a sacrifice for the cause of the Nation. Many
practising lawyers gave up their lucrative practice
and many a brilliant student gave up their studies
to respond to the call of the Nation. In November,
1921, the Congress gave permission to the Provincial
Committee to start Civil Disobedience if the conditions
laid down by Mahatma Gandhi were fulfilled.
Three episodes during the Civil Disobedience Movement
in Andhra attracted the attention of the whole country.
The first was the Chirala-Perala episode led by Duggirala
Gopalakrishnayya. He served for some time in the Government
College at Rajahmundry and the National College at
Machilipatam. He was, however, not satisfied with
the kind of education that was imparted there. Moreover,
after attending the Calcutta Congress in 1920, he
was attracted to the programme of Non-co-operation
and resolved to dedicate his life to the achievement
of Swaraj. For this purpose he trained thousand disciplined
band of warriors and gave them the name `Ramadandu'.
He put them to test at the All-India Congress Session
in Vijayawada to maintain peace and order and the
All-India leaders were immensely pleased with the
kind of work they did.
Chirala and Perala were two contiguous villages in
Prakasam (then part of Guntur) district with a population
of 15,000. The Government wanted to combine them into
a municipality in 1920. But the people protested against
this move because it meant imposition of additional
taxes. These protests were not headed to and the municipality
was constituted. As a protest against this, all elected
councillors resigned. The Government, however, carried
on the administration of the municipality with a paid
chairman. In January, 1921, the residents refused
to pay the municipal taxes. Several of them including
a woman were prosecuted, tried and sentenced to imprisonment.
This woman was considered to be the first woman in
the country to be imprisoned on political grounds.
After the All-India Congress session at Vijayawada,
Gandhiji came to Chirala. Gopalakrishnayya sought
his advice on the future course of action to be taken.
Gandhiji suggested two alternatives, (1) to continue
the No-Tax Campaign in a non-violent manner and (2)
mass exodus of people to the vacant areas beyond the
municipal limits. The second would automatically end
the municipality. But he made it clear that whatever
course they chose the Congress would bear no responsibility
and that they must stand on their own legs. Gopalakrishnayya
had enough confidence in himself and the people, and
in spite of the warning, he persuaded the residents
to move to the area outside the municipal limits and
raise temporary tenements which he called `Ramanagar'.
It was an unprecedented step in the history of the
country. For eleven months people lived there in thatched
huts braving the severity of weather. Gopalakrishnayya
and his Ramadandu kept up the morale of the people.
Their aim was to establish a parallel government and
demonstrate to the outside world how Swarajya, as
conceived by him, would be like. He constituted an
Assembly comprising members elected from each caste
and established an arbitration court. Sankirtans and
Bhajans kept up the morale of the people. He, however,
faced financial difficulties and he went to Berhampore
in 1921, when the Andhra Conference was in session
to collect some money. There he was prohibited to
address the public meetings but he defied the orders.
He was arrested and sentenced to one year's imprisonment
and sent to Trichinapally. There was no other person
who could occupy his place. The Government also took
repressive measures against those who built sheds
on government lands. People returned to their homes
in the municipality at the end of eleven months and
reconciled themselves to its constitution. Though
the movement failed, the qualities of courage and
fearlessness they developed stood them in good stead
in the subsequent stages of the freedom movement.
There were similar movements, though not of the same
scale or character, in Repalle and Vijayawada municipalities.
The Government was not obdurate and yielded to popular
pressure and took steps to redress their grievances.
The next episode was the `Forest Satyagraha' of the
ryots of Palnad in Guntur district in 1921. The peasants
of this place had to pay heavy tax for permission
to graze their cattle in forests. When the crops failed
that year, they decided to send their cattle into
the forests without paying the fee and suffer the
penalties. They resorted to social boycott of all
government officials and refused supply of even the
bare necessaries of life to them. It did not produce
the desired change in the attitude of the officials.
They took the cattle forcibly, confined them in cattle-pounds
and refused to free them unless the fee was paid.
There was, therefore, clash between the cattle owners
and the armed police that was brought on the scene.
In the firing that took place one Kannuganti Hanumanthu
was killed. Meanwhile, Gandhiji called off the Non-Co-operation
Movement due to some untoward incidents at Chowri
Chowra and with this the Palnad Satyagraha also came
to an end.
The No-Tax Campaign at Pedanandipadu in Bapatla taluk
of Guntur district was the third famous landmark.
There was considerable difference of opinion between
leaders like Konda Venkatappayya and Mahatma Gandhi
with regard to this campaign. Gandhiji wanted to try
the experiment first in Bardoli in Gujarat. The local
leaders, however, tried to convince him that the conditions
laid down for starting such a campaign were fulfilled
by the people of this place and they were very keen
on starting it. Gandhiji reluctantly gave permission
to proceed with it. In January, 1922, when the first
instalment of land revenue fell due, a non-payment
campaign was started under the leadership of Parvataneni
Virayya Chowdari. As a first step the village officers
were persuaded to resign so that no land revenue could
be collected. The Revenue officials could not collect
even five per cent of the demand of land revenue.
Repressive measures were resorted to movables, cattle
and even lands were attached for non-payment of land
tax, but none was present to bid them in the auctions.
Military was moved into the area to terrorise them.
These did not produce any result. The volunteers worked
day in and day out to maintain order and see that
no untoward incident took place. Before they proceeded
on further action, the movement was called off and
the local leaders gave up the No-Tax Campaign, and
the taxes were paid.
When the movement was called off, it left the minds
of many young men sore and the disappointment took
a violent turn in one instance. A rebellion broke
out in the agency areas of the Northern Circars under
the leadership of Alluri Sitaramaraju (1897--1923).
He was a simple and unostentatious young man given
to studies of spiritual importance. He was keen on
the welfare of the lowly and the innocent. He contributed
his mite in the days of the non-co-operation movement
and later settled down among the hill tribes of the
Visakhapatnam district, spending his time in spiritual
practices. The misdeeds of a British contractor, who
took pleasure in under-paying the workers drawn from
the hill tribes, brought him into a tussle with the
police who supported the contractor. This led to encounters
between the police and Sitaramaraju, who was supported
by the hill tribes under the leadership of the Gamu
brothers. Sitaramaraju raided many police stations
and carried off guns and powder. The alien Government
then made use of all its resources to quell the rebellion.
A company of the Assam rifles under the leadership
of Saunders was sent there. The campaign lasted nearly
for one year from December 1922 and, in the end, many
of the followers of Raju, especially the Gamu brothers,
were overpowered in an encounter. The rebellion petered
off by October 1923. Raju surrendered himself, so
it was said, and was shot dead without any trial.
In 1930 when Gandhiji started his salt-campaign,
the broad east coast of Andhra became the venue of
memorable deeds of many a young man and woman, who
in spite of the severe blows of lathis, prepared salt
and courted imprisonment. The tremendous awakening,
which was an outcome of this movement, resulted in
the rout of the parties other than the Congress in
the elections of 1937.
The thirties saw the emergence of leftist organisations
in Andhra which gave a fillip to the progressive trends.
Meanwhile, in 1939, the British Government dragged
India into World War II and the Congress ministries
resigned.
From 1942, history moved with a quick and vigorous
pace. The arrest of the leaders at Bombay on August
9, 1942, provoked the masses. The `Do or Die' message
of the National Congress inspired the people of Andhra,
who under the leadership of young but devoted workers,
brought the functioning of the Government to a stand
still for a few days. Many young students and workers
faced the bullets cheerfully, to swell the number
of those unknown, unwept, and unsung heroes of India
who died to make their country live.
Events moved on quickly and, on August 15, 1947,
India achieved its Independence. A new Constitution
came into force from the 26th of January, 1950, which
envisaged the new set-up of Government at the Centre
as well as at the States by duly elected representatives
from the people on an adult franchise.
The Andhras all along their fight with the British
authorities, thought that the exit of the Britishers
would facilitate the early formation of the Telugu
areas as a separate State. But the Constituent Assembly
had to decide otherwise and this proved to be a bitter
pill for the Andhras to swallow.
Economic and Social Developments:
The period of British rule in India forms a significant
chapter in the history of the ancient land. Many aliens
came to this land, conquered some parts of the territory,
but were soon absorbed as natural citizens of the
country. For the first time, the British (and the
other European nationals) who conquered and ruled
it for a considerable time remained aliens administering
a colonial rule and ultimately had to return. The
policy that underlined the various measures the British
took in legislative, judicial and executive fields
was only to tighten their grip over the country and
to exploit it to the advantage of their own motherland
However, the very measures they took had, curiously
enough, initiated and promoted many positive factors
leading to consolidation of the Indian society and
their urge for freedom. The colonial rule, of course,
left the country impoverished economically, but it
unified the nation, which was rudely shocked and,
therefore, prepared itself for a searching introspection.
This resulted in ushering in a new order, which almost
displaced the old one.
As a constituent of India, Andhra region also received
its share of these negative and positive forces. Andhra
was noted, for a long time since the period of the
Satavahanas, for its cloth industry. In spite of several
political upheavals, the ports of Andhra had been
busy with incoming and outgoing ships of various countries.
Even in the early years of the British rule, Andhra
flourished as an exporter of fine varieties of cloth,
chintz, palampores, etc. Handicrafts and metal crafts
also formed a part of the exports along with cloth.
Narsapur, in the present-day West Godavari district,
was noted for its ship-building activity and some
of the Europeans also were customers at the place.
There used to be a great demand for indigo, an agricultural
product, available only in Andhra and in a few other
parts of the country. The over-all exports were far
ahead of imports in value and the region earned a
lot of foreign exchange, which enabled it to withstand
the severity of famines that ravaged the country often.
But the Industrial Revolution which started in England
in the latter half of the 18th century, gradually
affected the cottage industries of Andhra as well
as those in the rest of India. England then turned
out to be a manufacturing country. By the aid of machines,
the English factories could manufacture finished articles
at a lesser cost than those from the cottage industries.
Further, the British being the rulers in the country,
discouraged the artists and craftsmen by imposing
heavy taxes. As a result of these measures the once
flourishing cottage industries and handicrafts of
Andhra languished and gradually vanished. The finished
articles that came out of the factories in England
were imported into Andhra and thus began the economic
drain which gradually impoverished the country and
enriched Great Britain. The synthetic method of preparation
of indigo by the western scientists, affected the
farmers very badly. The unemployed poor artisans in
the villages became agricultural labourers thus swelling
the ranks of those that depended on the land.
A greater harm was caused by the `divide and rule'
policy of the British. The communal virus thus injected
into the political body of the country had vitiated
the relations between the Hindus and the Muslims to
such an extent that it forced the Indians to agree
for the division of India into two independent states.
Though Andhras living in the coastal and Rayalaseema
districts managed to keep away from this communal
divide, those living in the State of Hyderabad had
to undergo a lot of suffering in 1946--48 in the wake
of a fanatic struggle carried on by Razakars to carve
out the Nizam's dominions as an independent Muslim-dominated
State. However, the timely action by the Union Government
of Free India saved the situation.
But, as mentioned earlier, some of the measures introduced
by the alien rulers to safeguard their own interests
proved very beneficial to Indians. The political and
administrative unity brought in by the Britishers,
helped the various, linguistic groups to come together
and take pride in being the citizens of a great country
with common cultural traditions. The rail-road, the
telegraph, the telephone and the newspaper brought
all those living in various corners of this vast country
come together and to understand each other. This system
of communication also helped the transit of goods
from one place to the other and was of immense help
during the times of famine.
The Britishers, wanted to keep India as a producer
of raw materials and as such harnessed the rivers
by constructing dams. The dam on the Godavari at Dowleswaram
was constructed in 1852 and the one on the Krishna
at Vijayawada in 1855. These naturally helped the
farmers of the delta areas, though they could not
solve the problem of poverty that tormented the people
at large.
It must, however, be conceded that the foreigner's
rule had resulted in a renaissance that yielded fruitful
results in social and cultural fields. The introduction
of English as a medium of teaching in schools is the
main factor that contributed to this transformation,
though it was mainly intended to train Indians for
ministerial jobs. This new system of education, unlike
the old traditional one, threw open the gates of the
schools to all Indians irrespective of caste or creed.
A certificate from such a school served as a passport
for a job in the service of the Government. The Christian
missionaries from England and America also played
a notable part in spreading the system.
The introduction of printing press in the State in
or about 1810 helped in bringing knowledge to the
door-steps of the ordinary readers. As a result, educational
activity in Andhra as well as in the rest of India,
was influenced by European literatures, modern sciences
and democratic ideas that sprung from the knowledge.
This knowledge brought out many revolutionary changes
in the religious and cultural fields.
This contact with European thought enabled many Hindu
leaders to reinterpret Hinduism to strengthen it to
withstand the threat from the proselytisation carried
on by the Christian missionaries. The reaction to
it resulted in the founding of the Brahma Samaj and
the Arya Samaj. At the same time, Europeans such as
Anne Besant, captivated by the merits of the ancient
Hindu and Buddhist thoughts, founded the Theosophical
Society. All these gained some following in Andhra,
especially among the educated classes.
Telugu literature also underwent a sea-change under
the influence of the English writings. The credit
for pioneering such a change goes to Kandukuri Veeresalingam
Pantulu. He was also responsible for bringing in many
social reforms, the main thrust of which was the upliftment
of the women's status.
All these revolutionary changes in social and cultural
fields found their expression in the urge for freedom
among people.
POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA:
Struggle for Andhra State:
The Andhras were struggling for the formation of
a separate Andhra Province since the period of British,
but could not succeed. When India attained Independence
on the 15th of August, 1947, Andhras hoped that their
long-cherished desire would be realised soon. Inspite
of several renewed efforts put forth by the Andhra
leaders before the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
and the Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,
the desire for a separate Andhra State remained as
a dream itself.
The Dar Commission, appointed by the Government of
India under the Chairmanship of S.K.Dar did not recommend
for the creation of States on the linguistic consideration.
This report of the Commission created such an adverse
reaction in Andhra that the Congress leaders felt
it prudent to assuage the ruffled feelings of the
Telugus. An unofficial Committee, consisting of Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah,
popularly known as the J.V.P. Committee, was constituted
by the Congress. The Committee in its report submitted
to the Working Committee of the Indian National Congress
in April, 1949 recommended that the creation of linguistic
provinces be postponed by few years. However, it suggested
that Andhra Province could be formed provided the
Andhras gave up their claim to the city of Madras
(now Chennai). This report provoked violent reaction
in Andhra as the Telugus were not prepared to forego
their claims to the city of Madras.
Under the prevailing situation, a Partition Committee
was formed under the Chairmanship of Kumaraswami Raja,
the then Chief Minister of Madras. Andhra was represented
by Tanguturi Prakasam, B.Gopala Reddi, Kala Venkata
Rao and N.Sanjiva Reddy. The Partition Committee could
not arrive at an agreed settlement. Prakasam disagreed
with the views of other members and gave a dissenting
note. The Government of India, took advantage of the
dissenting note of Prakasam and shelved the issue.
To express the resentment of the Andhras, Swami Sitaram
(Gollapudi Sitarama Sastry), a Gandhian, undertook
a fast unto death, which created an explosive situation
in Andhra. However, Swami gave up his 35-day fast
on the 20th of September, 1951, on the appeal made
by Vinoba Bhave. Nothing came out of this fast except
the increasing distrust of the people of Andhra towards
their own leaders and the Government of India.
In the First General Elections of 1952, Andhras expressed
their resentment towards the Congress leaders by defeating
them at the polls. Out of the 140 seats from Andhra
in the Madras Legislative Assem7bly, the Congress
could secure only 43, while the Communist Party of
India bagged as many as 40 seats out of the 60 it
contested. In the Madras Legislative Assembly itself,
the Congress could secure only 152. The non-Congress
members in the legislature, numbering 164 formed themselves
into a United Democratic Front (U.D.F.) and elected
T.Prakasam as their leader. But the Governor nominated
C.Rajagopala Chari to the Legislative Council and
invited him to form the ministry.
After Rajagopala Chari became the Chief Minister
of the Madras State, he tried to divert the Krishna
waters by constructing Krishna-Pennar Project for
the development of the Tamil area. The Andhras agitated
against this as they feared that the Project spelt
ruin to Andhra. The Government of India appointed
an expert Committee under the Chairmanship of A.N.Khosla,
who pronounced that the project in its present form
should not be proceeded with and suggested the construction
of a project at Nandikonda (the site of the present
Nagarjunasagar Project). The report of the Khosla
Committee vindicated the apprehensions of the Andhras
regarding the unfriendly attitude of Rajagopala Chari's
Government towards the Andhras. The desire of the
Andhras to separate themselves from the composite
Madras State and form their own State gained further
momentum.
At this juncture, Potti Sriramulu, a self-effacing
Gandhian, began his fast unto death on the 19th of
October, 1952 at Madras. Though the fast created an
unprecedented situation throughout Andhra, the Congress
leaders and the Government of India did not pay much
attention to it. On the 15th of December, 1952, Sriramulu
attained martyrdom. The news of Sriramulu's death
rocked Andhra into a violent and devastating agitation.
The Government of India was taken aback at this popular
upsurge. On the 19th December, 1952, Jawaharlal Nehru
announced in the Lok Sabha that the Andhra State would
be formed with the eleven undisputed Telugu districts,
and the three Taluks of the Bellary district, but
excluding Madras City.
On the 1st of October, 1953, Andhra State came into
existance. It consisted of the districts of Srikakulam,
Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna,
Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur and
Kurnool, and the taluks of Rayadurg, Adoni and Alur
of the Bellary district. On the question of Bellary
taluk, it was included in the Mysore State on the
recommendation of L.S.Mishra Commission.
Kurnool became the capital of the new State, under
the terms of the Sri Bagh Pact of 1937 between the
leaders of the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema. T.Prakasam
became the first Chief Minister of the Andhra State
and C.M.Trivedi was appointed Governor of this new
State. With the inauguration of the Andhra State by
Nehru, the forty year old dream of the Telugu people
to have a separate State of their own was partly fulfilled.
They looked forward to the formation of Visalandhra
with Hyderabad City as the Capital.
Police Action in Hyderabad State:
Andhras were very much agitated over the developments
in the State of Hyderabad during the years 1946--48.
The Nizam was very anxious to become independent and
he insisted that Hyderabad should be the third dominion.
He tried to achieve his ambitious desire with the
help of Khasim Razvi of the Ittehadul Muslimeen and
its storm-troopers, the Razakars.
Meanwhile, the Hindus of the Hyderabad State who
accounted for 93 per cent of its population, launched
the `Join India' movement with the cooperation of
a few patriotic Muslims for the integration of the
State with the rest of the country. The State Congress
leaders, led by Swami Ramanand Tirtha, invoked themselves
whole-heartedly in the movement. As the State Congress
was banned by the Nizam, its leaders conducted their
activities from places like Vijayawada and Bombay.
The Communists on their part organised village defence
squads to protect the villagers from the attacks of
the Nizam Police and Razakars.
All negotiations between the Nizam's Dominions and
the Indian Union proved abortive. The Nizam Government
did not agree to the accession of the Dominions to
the Indian Union. The activities of the Majlis Ittehadul
Muslimeen and the Razakars within the Dominions were
posing a threat to peace and harmony. The growing
violence of the Razakars seriously jeopardised law
and order. The Government of India, tried to make
the Nizam see reason and sign the Instrument of Assession
with India. After tortuous negotiations, the Nizam
finally entered into a `Stand Still Agreement' on
November 29, 1947, with India for one year to maintain
status quo, which existed between the British and
the Nizam before August 15, 1947. This agreement of
the Nizam was only to gain time to procure military
hardware from different parts of the world and smuggle
them into Hyderabad. In the menwhile, the Nizam sent
a delegation to the U.N.O. to refer the Hyderabad
case to the Security Council.
With the growing violence by the Razakars and the
Nizam's attempts to get himself independent, the Government
of India decided to curb these tendencies by launching
a `Police Action' against the Nizam. On the 13th of
September, 1948 `Police Action' on Hyderabad commenced.
The Indian Army, led by Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri
entered the State from five directions and the military
action was a brilliant success. On 18th September,
1949, Nizam's forces surrendered and Mir Laik Ali,
the Prime Minister of the Nizam, and Khasim Razvi
were arrested. On September, 23, the Nizam withdrew
his complaint in the Security Council. The merger
of Hyderabad Dominions into the Indian Union was announced.
Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri took over as Military
Governor of Hyderabad and stayed in that position
till the end of 1949. In January 1950, M.K.Vellodi,
a Senior Civil Servant, was made the Chief Minister
of the State and the Nizam was designated `Raj Pramukh'.
After the 1952 General Elections, the first popular
ministry headed by B.Rama Krishna Rao took charge
of the State.
Emergence of Andhra Pradesh:
The creation of Andhra State in October, 1953 strengthened
the general demand for linguistic States. Andhras
had also long cherished demand for the formation of
Visalandhra, since the people of Hyderabad State were
unanimous in their demand for the trifurcation of
their State. Andhras hoped that the outlying Telugu
areas in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Madras
be incorporated in the greater Andhra.
The States Reorganisation Commission, with Syed Fazl
Ali as the Chairman, set up by the Government of India
in December 1953, who heard the views of different
organisations and individuals, was though convinced
of the advantages of Visalandhra, however, favoured
the formation of separate State for Telangana. This
report of the S.R.C. led to an intensive lobbying
both by the advocates of Telangana and Visalandhra.
The Communists reacted sharply and announced that
they would resign their seats in the Hyderabad Legislative
Assembly and contest elections on the issue. In the
Hyderabad Legislative Assembly, a majority of the
Legislators supported Visalandhra.
The Congress High Command favoured Visalandhra and
prevailed upon the leaders of the Andhra State and
Telangana to sort out their differences, who, thereupon,
entered into a `Gentlemen's Agreement'. One of the
main provisions of the Agreement was the creation
of a `Regional Council' for Telangana for its all
round development. The enlarged State by merging nine
Telugu speaking districts of Adilabad, Nizamabad,
Medak, Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam, Nalgonda, Mahbubnagar
and Hyderabad, into Andhra State with its eleven districts
of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West
Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore, Chittor, Cuddapah,
Anantapur and Kurnool, totalling 20 districts* was
named `Andhra Pradesh' with its capital at Hyderabad.
It was inaugurated on the 1st of November, 1956 by
Jawaharlal Nehru. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the
first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, who later
rose to the position of the President of India. Burgula
Ramakrishna Rao, last of the Chief Ministers of Hyderabad
State was elevated to the Office of the Governor of
Kerala. C.M.Trivedi continued to be the Governor of
Andhra Pradesh.
*Three more districts were added later by the creation
of Prakasam in 1970, Ranga Reddy in 1978 and Vizianagaram
in 1979. Thus, the State presently has 23 districts
State Symobol - Poorna Khumbam
State Language - Telugu
State New Year - Ugadhi
State Song- Maa telugu talliki malle poodanda
State Animal - Krishna jinka
State Bird - Paala pitta
Staet Tree - Neem
State Sport - Kabbadi
|
